Currents in Literacy

Words, Words, Words: Teaching Vocabulary in Grades 4-12, by J. Allen, Stenhouse, 1999.

Reviewed by Mary McMackin

Logophiles are everywhere. We see them hiding behind office doors completing crossword puzzles on their lunch hours, jotting down interesting words on scraps of paper, and composing poetry as they stand in front of their refrigerators. Perhaps you are a logophile. Logophiles are people who love words.

Over the years, vocabulary instruction, for too many students, has been synonymous with dictionaries and programmed vocabulary books. Many of us remember receiving weekly lists of words that we were asked to define and to use in sentences. On Fridays, we were tested on these words to assess whether or not we "learned" them. A large body of research now supports our intuitive understanding that these practices are ineffective in achieving in-depth knowledge of unfamiliar words. In other words, definitional knowledge of a word does not provide a student with the support needed to apply this knowledge while reading or writing. Allen suggests, "Clearly, new words need to be integrated into the learner's prior knowledge, repeated in multiple contexts, and used in meaningful ways" (p. 35). There is a great deal of research today to support more effective vocabulary instruction. Allen's book, based on current research, not only provides a rationale for going beyond "traditional" instructional practices, but it also offers many concrete ways to teach vocabulary effectively and meaningfully.

In chapter 3, "Alternatives to Look It Up in the Dictionary!," the author points out that not all vocabulary words have equal importance, even though when teachers give word lists to memorize, it appears that all words are equal. Kameenui (cited in Allen, p. 6) first determines the level of "importance, frequency and applicability" (p. 7) of each unfamiliar word. In turn, the amount of instruction is based on the word knowledge that needs to be achieved: "verbal association knowledge, partial concept knowledge, or full concept knowledge" (p. 6). Once teachers determine the level of importance for each word, they can plan instruction accordingly. Chapter 3 contains several graphic organizers and activities to activate/assess background knowledge, to build concepts, and to make vocabulary instruction meaningful. These activities and graphic organizers may be used across disciplines.

Chapter 4, "Reading as the Heart of Word-Rich Classrooms," is devoted to connecting reading and vocabulary. Here, the author discusses the use of word walls and makes recommendations to increase SAT scores. She also suggests content area books to use for teaching the specialized vocabulary in the arts, health and physical education, language arts, math, science and social studies.

I found chapter 5, which centers on assessment, to be extremely useful. Allen provides concrete examples of authentic activities teachers may use to evaluate students' word knowledge. She believes that when vocabulary instruction becomes more authentic and meaningful (i.e., moves beyond dictionaries and vocabulary books), assessment practices must also move away from "weekly vocabulary tests, multiple choice and fill-in-the-blanks" (p. 96). The assessment tasks included in Words, Words, Words are varied, meaningful, and thought provoking. At first, teachers may find it challenging and time consuming to design and to grade these assignments; however, if we want students to be able "to transfer word knowledge from one context to another, single measures that are context bound don't work very well" (p.105).

The five appendices contain a wealth of resources:

• an annotated bibliography of additional books and articles one may want to read about vocabulary
• quotations for word lovers
• an annotated bibliography of commercially prepared games that encourage word play (e.g., Boggle, Scattergories)
• a list of prefixes, roots, and suffixes
• twenty-two forms (graphic organizers) that are ready for classroom use.

Although this book focuses on grades 4-12, many of the strategies and activities presented can be adapted to lower or higher grades. Allen, in this teacher-friendly book, is successful in providing learners with activities that inspire. From Allen's perspective, vocabulary instruction is not relegated only to the English language arts; rather, vocabulary instruction is integrated throughout all aspects of the curriculum. This book, which balances theory and practice, is for all who are interested in enhancing the word knowledge of elementary, middle school, or high school students. It's a valuable resource for all logophiles or logophile proteges.

Multicultural Voices in Contemporary Literature: A Resource for Teachers, by Frances Ann Day, Heinemann, 1999.

Reviewed by Roberta L. Jackson

In her poem, "The Learning Gate," Carol Cornwell poignantly asks, "What I am, what I do, How important is it to you? I want to see myself in the classroom we share, so please make sure MY culture is there." Teachers, as keepers of The Learning Gate, have many obligations beyond reading and writing. In today's schools, progressive programs encourage learners to use their social action skills to test their learning and reform society. In her book, Multicultural Voices in Contemporary Literature, Frances Ann Day presents a compilation of authors and their stories which provides educators with new sources for curriculum enhancement. It is divided into three parts, the first is an overview and outline for the evaluation of children's books for bias. The second part introduces the reader to thirty-nine writers, who self identify using many categories, such as Cuban American, Abenaki, English and Slovak, Rosebud Sioux, Overseas Chinese, African American, Black American, Chinese Canadian, and Jewish American, to name a few. Some are known, many are less well known. The third part includes appendices which cover program assessment, optional activities, author birthdays, and other resources. This updated and revised edition was originally published in 1994.

Several aspects of this book are worthy of special note. The organization and format facilitate the integration of new authors into an established program of study. Such practices as whole school reform and the use of curriculum frameworks support ideas that teach young people to grapple with controversial issues and address inequality. For each author there is a picture, a list of publications for that author, a biography, a summary of selected texts, and suggestions for classroom learning. The teacher looking for ways to deal with sensitive issues will find satisfaction here. Topics touch on death and dying, gender roles, the Harlem Renaissance, the Holocaust, internalized racism, disabilities, sweatshops, the oral tradition, and the list goes on and on. Author Day points out, in her comments on the controversial book, Annie On My Mind, that sometimes "we must not avoid topics that members of the community find objectionable." She cautions, however, that teachers must check with local regulations and supervisors before introducing thorny issues.

Another commendable feature is the level of suggestions for classroom activity following every book summary. Students are confronted with ideas that require synthesis, higher order thinking, and significant student oral interaction- all practices that challenge both teacher and learner. Much staff development in today's schools is designed to help teachers infuse their routine with practices that support inclusionary ideas. For the book, Night Flying Woman: An Ojibway Narrative, students are encouraged to create a dance. Teachers encompassing a "multiple intelligences" approach in their lessons will appreciate those ideas which may reach otherwise reluctant readers.

Day has written lengthy biographies and summaries that sketch the story lines of the works by each author. For the book by George Ancona, Earth Daughter: Alicia of Acoma Pueblo, she writes, "This is a lovely, engaging book that will replace some of the stereotypical materials that were published in the past." Day describes an important quality about the book Handtalk, noting that how "The multicultural cast of characters and the lighthearted, humorous facial expressions and subject matter will demystify sign language." For students in elementary and middle school, we learn about the book, Carousel, by Pat Cummings. "Entertaining and magical, this playful tale affirms that disappointments don't last forever." There are "surprises in her pictures, such as patterns and objects that draw children into the story." Although many books are appropriate for all ages, the format facilitates access to any desired age range by clearly setting such information apart and in bold print.

An important component of understanding other cultures is the respect accorded their language and communication styles. This book abounds in references that offer varied, rich, and fascinating vocabulary. In many of the selections, Day highlights texts that focus on new words, giving increased opportunity for students to develop positive self worth. An interesting example is The Gift Giver, by Joyce Hansen. Here, "modified Africanized English is used in both narrative and dialogue." For a story that examines peer pressure in modern day Bronx, New York, readers can link reading the word with reading the world. (Macedo, 99) For the teacher, this can become another venue for exploring political awareness.

In the poem "The Learning Tree" another question ignites a thought. "How will you teach me, if you don't learn the rhythms I sing? Cause if you don't know What is special to me, How will I learn from 9 til 3?" Teachers, librarians, and parents will find in Multicultural Voices in Contemporary Literature, a unique and upbeat approach to literacy. As a resource, it shows how far we've come from a time half a century ago when national magazines were advised never to show people of color as anything but servants, until today when the concepts of diversity and pluralism permeate best practices in education. Readers will appreciate the many genres represented: folklore, poetry, history, biography, and tall tales. Teachers will enjoy preparing for the journey that leads through The Learning Gate.

Macedo D.( 1999), The Illiteracy of English-Only Literacy, Educational Leadership; ASCD.

The American Way of Spelling: The Structure and Origins of American English Orthography, by Richard L. Venezky, Guilford Press, 1999.

Reviewed by William T. Stokes

Spelling and phonics, in all the disputes about literacy education, remain essential concerns for educators, parents and policy makers and Richard Venezky captures the sentiments of so many in the quote he chooses to open the preface: "Let us discard orthography, the terror of all human beings from birth," (Gabriel Garcia Marquez).

Even the most recent English language arts exam for fourth graders in Massachusetts (MCAS) posed a series of questions about Noah Webster's and Benjamin Franklin's conflicting views on American English spelling. One question asked the ten-year-olds whether Benjamin Franklin, who abhorred silent letters, would have preferred that the word knife be spelled as niff, nif, nife or knif. The correct answer according to the State was nif, even though that spelling removes the signal for the long vowel.

Venezky's detailed analysis of American spelling should be required reading for all who hope (or claim) to understand the actual complexity of English orthography. It is a book about the problem of the system of English spelling -- it examines that system and reveals subtleties that few would have imagined without the aid of his thorough analysis. As such, it should be an invaluable resource for those researchers, educators, and policy makers who intend to devise and implement spelling and phonics programs.

Written English is fundamentally alphabetic and its orthography is derived from the Roman alphabet. A perfectly alphabetic language would have one distinctive letter for each distinctive sound (phoneme). But, in English the matter is far more complex; for example, the letter 'a', alone or in combination with other letters, can represent a variety of sounds: age, act, are, bare, bath, father, bait, beat, boat, caught and so on. One source of the problem is that English has a substantially greater number of sounds (about 44 in American English) than there are letters, especially in the realm of vowels.

On first inspection it may seem that one letter will reliably represent one sound, as for example the letter 'n' in the words in, on, no, nine, none or banana, but sometimes that letter needs to appear twice, as in inn, innate and cannon, but not in canon. Then on other occasions the one-letter to one-sound correspondence breaks down and 'n' represents a quite different sound, a velar nasal, as in ink, think, bang, and uncle. In some instances, the letter is "silent": damn, autumn and hymn, but then reappears in damnation, autumnal and hymnal.

Two letters can represent one sound, as in 'ch', 'sh', and 'th' -- and notice that 'th' in the words thin and then represents different sounds. In Latin these sounds did not exist and so were not represented in the Roman alphabet; English adopted these combinations rather than invent new symbols (although at some points in the history of English other symbols were used for a time).

The letter 's' indicates different sounds in us, is, sure, measure, and island -- all common words. Often different letter combinations represent the same sounds, as in the final consonant sounds of cough, graph, cliff, and loaf. One letter can represent two sounds at once, as in ox where the 'x' represents [k] and [s] sounds together. And, the complexity of English vowels can be observed in the fact that each of these words rhyme: do, woo, two, blue, new, flu, and through (and you and ewe).

All of this and much more can be gleaned from the first two chapters alone of Venezky's lively and lucid treatment. Of particular interest to those who would hope to find an answer to why English spelling seems so contrary are the chapters on the history of English and its writing system (chapters 5 and 6). English is rooted in the Germanic languages and dialects spoken by the Angles and Saxons who invaded the British Islands, beginning in the mid-fifth century (following the withdrawal of the Romans) and continuing in waves for six hundred more years. Celtic influences remained in some regions and medieval scholars continued to use Latin and Greek. In the year 1066 the Norman French invaded and for a few hundred years Norman French became the language of the court and those who owned property while Old English was spoken by peasants and servants. By the time of Chaucer (late 14th century), Middle English had fully emerged out of a blending of the Anglo-Saxon and Norman French influences. A close look at English orthography will quickly reveal that these influences are preserved in spelling patterns reflecting the origins of particular words, e.g. king from Anglo-Saxon and chief or chieftain from French and Latin, or similarly, get and receive, or understanding and comprehension.

Viking invasions introduced Scandinavian words and sounds so that there are many Danish influences in English. And, there continued to be influences of Latin scholars who sought to preserve Latin etymologies in words rather than match pronunciation exactly: e.g., native, nation, and nature all retain a 't' despite sound shifts. As Middle English gave way to Early Modern English (in the 16th century) there was what linguists call the "great vowel shift" that dramatically change the pronunciation of long vowels especially. The modern word house was pronounced [hus] in Middle English (rhyming with moose). As pronunciations changed, so did many spellings, but where they settled was sometimes a matter of chance. The irregularities of the "silent" 'e' can be traced to this period: home compared to come, and give vs. hive.

Chapters 7, 8, and 9 undertake the challenge to make sense of the patterns and regularities that can be identified in English. Letters do far more than stand for sounds in one-to-one correspondence. English may be fundamentally alphabetic, but it is not entirely phonetic. Venezky moves through the consonant and vowel patterns in monosyllabic and multisyllabic words, investigating the effects of position, stress patterns, and prefixes and suffixes: e.g., while the 'g' is silent in strong, it returns in stronger and strongest. Consonants appear in certain clusters (e.g., strands and sixths) and vowels appear in various groupings: sometimes pronounced individually (idea), or as one unit (great), or as a complex of markers and units (anxious).

The author provides an account for the puzzling problem of when to double a final consonant before adding a suffix. I can recall my confusion in grade school about beginning and opening. Why should the 'n' double in one instance but not the other? The answer lies in which syllable is stressed. In begin it is the second syllable that receives stress while in open it is the first.

The vowel patterns deserve careful attention. Most educated adults when asked how many vowels there are in English tend to respond that there are five or six. They are thinking of letters, not sounds. The vowels in English exceed twenty when the primary vowels (eleven in American English) are added to diphthongs (boy), glides (cow), "r-colored" vowels (herd, heard, bird, word, curd -- all rhyme despite differing spellings, whereas common spellings can yield different sounds: the 'ear' in fear, bear, heart and earth).

In chapter 10, Venezky argues that English spelling captures more about morphemes (meaningful units) than simply representing sounds. This chapter entails considerable attention to linguistic complexities that will be unfamiliar to many readers. To give a suggestion of the factors involved, consider the pattern of plurals: cat, dog, horse, church become cats, dogs, horses, churches. The sounds are [s], [z], [iz], [iz]. The pattern is based on adding an abstract plural morpheme to words having final consonants with differing sound qualities. The example of arches and aches illustrates how sound differences can converge in seemingly similar spellings. The plural of arch is 'es' -- [iz], because of the final [ch]; but in ache the 'ch' has the sound [k] and the plural 's' -- [s] is appropriate.

Venezky charts a path through these complexities and many more. Yet, he also points out, throughout the book, that for all the patterns observed, further irregularities and exceptions exist because of other factors including borrowings from other languages in different historical periods and different decisions made by scribes (earlier) and printers (later) as they sought to establish certain consistencies. "No hand of consistency ever stroked the spelling system for English. Patterning? Yes. Full, consistent patterning? No!" (p209).

Chapter 11 provides a clear, brief, even entertaining, history of doomed efforts at spelling reform for English. While some changes, as between British and American spellings, did become well established, and other minor changes introduced (judgment rather than judgement), for the most part the efforts to render English spelling more phonetic did not produce great revisions. The preference for retaining morphemic relations may be more valuable to the reader: nativ, nashun, nachur would be more phonetic but would lose elements of common etymology.

Chapters 4, The Sound System, and 12, Teaching Phonics, should be considered together. Proponents of direct, systematic, intensive phonics instruction must understand the phonological system of English, at a minimum. It is not sufficient to presume that text books and work books can substitute for specific linguistic knowledge which should be acquired by all professional educators dedicated to helping children read and write English. As we would expect a pharmacist to know an analgesic from a narcotic, we should expect educators and policy makers to know the difference between phonemic and morphemic influences on letter-sound correspondences. In the space available, Venezky can only sketch out a series of questions and possibilities for examining the linguistic bases of phonics instruction. The careful reader will need to take the insights and suggestions offered and convey them to longer treatments.

This volume by Venezky represents a reflection upon more than thirty years of research since the publication of his earlier book, The Structure of English Orthography (1970). Given the intended audience, the book contains a wealth of data and insights, but does not succeed completely in choosing between less technical and more precise treatments. At moments it avoids theory, as in the utter dismissal of one of the most important works, Chomsky and Halle (1968), in a footnote on page 7; at other moments it exercises a passion for theory with jargon that will puzzle many readers: a minor example that recurs throughout the volume is the decision to describe vowels as "checked" or "free", rather than the more common terms used by teachers, "short" and "long" (or even the terms of introductory linguistics texts, "lax" and "tense").

The psycholinguistic tradition that influences this work is evident, but it is a somewhat narrow version of that tradition. Others who have added their voices to these matters are simply ignored (e.g., Balmuth, 1982). The complexity of English orthography is such that a multi-volumned encyclopedia would be required to do the topic justice. So, the omission of other contemporary contributors to the field may have been a matter of editorial decisions concerning overall length. Still, readers of this book would be well served to investigate other treatments of spelling and phonics.