Currents in Literacy

Best Practices in Literacy Instruction, By Linda B. Gambrell, Lesley Mandel Morrow, Susan B. Neuman, and Michael Pressley (Eds.), The Guilford Press, 1999.

Reviewed by Terry VanDeCarr

As you glance expectantly down the list of over thirty talented scholars who contributed to this book, you realize that something out of the ordinary is being offered by the professional literature. A first reading of the book fulfills your expectations, and affirms that the authors provided not only the best practices for literacy instruction, but also the best the field has to offer for direction and passage into the new millennium.

The major purpose of Best Practices in Literacy Instruction is to awaken teachers, language arts coordinators, administrators and literacy specialists to the need for a consensus on literacy instruction and to provide the content of this consensus. The proposed consensus is delivered through eight common ground themes based on research-based best practices, presenting refreshing, new perspectives which reconceptualize ongoing literacy debates. To accomplish these important purposes, the book is organized into three sections.

Part I: "Perspectives on Exemplary Practices in Literacy" consists of three chapters. In this section, the best practices for literacy instruction are outlined and eight principles reflecting "common ground" themes related to best practices are presented by Linda Gambrell and Susan Mazzoni. P. David Pearson also presents new scales for balancing the literacy curriculum, which help to clarify the content and meaning of a balanced literacy curriculum. To assist us in achieving best practices in today's schools, James Cunningham highlights and esteems the role of teachers and presents the need to confront faddism and the problems associated with teacher accountability.

The true merit and value of this book becomes apparent when reading Part II: "Strategies for Learning and Teaching." In this section, the best practices and eight principles of common ground themes are embedded in the topics covered throughout ten highly descriptive chapters. As might be predicted, core topics cover all bases, from early literacy instruction through secondary education, from basals to a literature-based curriculum, and from flexible grouping to classroom management. What might not be expected, however, is the comprehensive, artful manner in which the topics and models of best practices are presented. The scenarios, discussions and vignettes of exemplary classroom instruction provide 3-D descriptions and realistic snapshots of classrooms, teachers, and children working together. The reader is invited inside for a classroom visit to meet new colleagues, to confront realistic problems and to become involved in practical solutions to familiar problems.

Part III: "Special Issues," is an additional five chapters which attends to other important considerations for literacy instruction. In these chapters, the authors emphasize the need to guide the instructional process with decision-making based on children's individual strengths and needs. Particular emphasis is given to the decisions surrounding teacher-directed instruction versus learner-directed discovery, and between isolated strategy emphases and use of whole texts. A culturally responsive approach to literacy instruction which promotes continuity between home and school is also presented, and includes a description of three strategies: a family album, literacy-related prop boxes, and parent-child book clubs. There is also a close look at alternative grouping strategies which highlight the need for flexible grouping, cooperative learning groups, literature circles, and needs-based grouping, along with six language routines to help teachers plan for effective literacy instruction in the primary grades. The final chapters provide case studies of exemplary early intervention programs, and suggestions for integrating technology into literacy instruction.

Although the eight principles reflecting common ground themes are not new to us, the editors and contributors of are to be commended for their efforts. In the past, recognition of principles such as the impact of prior knowledge on comprehension, the need for scaffolded instruction and social collaboration, led us in the right direction toward the improvement of our students' literacy achievement. This new consensus, progresses many more miles toward this important goal. Rather than intimidating their audience, the authors have fostered a true sense of community between the characters in the book and its readers.

The greatest strength which emerges in Best Practices in Literacy Instruction is the manner in which the main character, the teacher, is portrayed. Throughout the book, exemplary teachers are portrayed as individuals who are flexible decision-makers, and as artists who fashion their own literacy environments to support unique classroom literacy programs. This characterization of the teacher is interwoven throughout the book and is captured in the words of Dixie Lee Spiegel: "There is no best way to teach this or that. It depends on so many things. Helping each child each day reach toward his/her potential is truly a balancing act. It requires teachers who have the courage to make decisions, to look critically at their own practices, and to trust in their own competence to build their own philosophies (p. 255)." For all of its strengths, but for this strength in particular, this selection is an obvious choice for veteran teachers who wish to read the professional literature, and for educators who aspire to provide quality professional development experiences.

Bring Life Into Learning, by Donald Graves, Heinemann, 1999.

Reviewed by Mary McMackin

Donald Graves, the beloved author of Writing, Teachers and Children at Work, and A Fresh Look at Writing, proposes in Bringing Life Into Learning that educators reexamine how we structure the curriculum. He suggests that we begin by focusing on people. He posits that "when children begin to understand how to 'read' people, they interpret the world more effectively" (p. 17). "Reading" people may take several forms: the close examination of characters' motives in fiction we read; the appreciation of contributions from people in history, science and the arts; or the development of rounded characters in our own writing. Graves's message in this easy-to-read book is simple - learning experiences should center around the actions of people, which in turn direct the plot in narratives and the events in history, science and the arts.

This book is arranged in two major parts. Chapters 1-5 draw the reader's attention to people they discover in fiction, biographies, autobiographies and nonfiction. In this first half of the book, Graves models ways in which teachers can help students improve their understanding and development of characters. A transcribed conversation between Graves and several young writers illustrates how the author walks children through the process of creating characters. He even explains how he would conduct a workshop on naming characters and suggests that children use telephone directories when they are trying to decide on last names for their characters.

Chapters 6-12 deal specifically with people we encounter in history, art, and science. Graves nudges teachers to use the following four questions as a way of "looking at historical figures in order to understand their everyday lives and their participation in history: What do these people want badly? What opposing polarities or tensions do they encounter because of what they want? What do they learn? What personal characteristics contributed to their performance in history?" (pp. 38-39). Each question is accompanied by a series of subquestions. After investigating historians, Graves looks closely at artists. Renowned artist Georgia O'Keefe assists him with his growing understanding of how artists think. Similarly, in the chapters devoted to science, Graves relies heavily on the experiences of Jean-Henri Fabre, a nineteenth-century entomologist, and modern-day environmental scientist Bruce Hill to ferret out how scientists do science.

Reminiscent of A Fresh Look at Writing, Graves sprinkles "actions" - practice exercises - throughout this book. The actions give the reader opportunities to try out a series of practical teaching experiences. For example, one of the earlier actions in the books invites readers to "use children's own reading books to demonstrate how writers introduce their characters" (p. 22). After each action is posed, Graves describes how he would complete it. This interactive exchange between Graves and his reader allows the reader to understand how an "expert" would approach each task, which is very reassuring. In addition, the actions give the reader occasions to learn by doing, and they supply the reader with interesting experiences that she may replicate with her own students.

As I read the book, one noteworthy concern surfaced. It seems that the theme of the book - to focus on people and how they think - is woven clearly throughout the first seven chapters. Graves, through his actions and reflections, details the importance of recognizing the people behind the events in fiction and nonfiction. There seems to be a balance between development of character (the personal) with why the characters think as they do, and how their thinking influences related events. However, the actions for the chapters devoted to science and especially to art seem to accentuate what people do in these content area (i.e., a process) more than the personal role of the people. The connection to the theme of the book appears to be more subtle than in earlier chapters. Notably, most of the actions in the first half of the book contain the word "character": "Using the outline on page 39, consider what you can apply to an understanding of the character of Jefferson as well as the signing of the Declaration of Independence" (p. 39). "Consider each of the characters in "The Boy and the Moose"" (p. 15). Contrast these examples with some from the last few chapters of the book: "Choose an article to sketch, then draw it from different points of view" (p. 85). "Choose an object that interests you. Continue to sketch it until your study of line and texture reveal something new to you" (p. 66). I was not able to "read" the people behind the art and science as easily as I could "read" characters in trade books, history, and our own writing.

Perhaps trying to address people and their way of thinking in so many disparate domains is too daunting a challenge to accomplish thoroughly in one relatively short book (125 pages). A preface to the book may have helped set a stronger context for its content and clarified the purposes of the book. Clearly, if the author's intention was to interest his readers in a new, intriguing way to approach curriculum, he attained his goal. Graves has whetted my appetite, and I'm eager to know more about how we can focus on people, placing their thinking and actions at the core of the curriculum.

Literacy Instruction in Half-and Whole-day Kindergarten: Research to Practice, by Morrow, L.M., Strickland, O.S., & Woo, D.G., IRA & NCTE, 1998.

Reviewed by Mary McMackin

Does the old adage that more is better hold true when talking about kindergarten programs? The authors of Literacy Instruction in Half- and Whole-day Kindergarten provide a strong research base to support their resounding "yes." However, they are quick to note that research on whole- vs. half-day kindergarten is "far from definitive" (p.12).

This book is based on a six-month study with five half-day and five whole-day kindergartens in one school district. The authors investigated how the programs in these inner-city schools impacted the achievement of the children, 95% of whom were from minority backgrounds. In the first four chapters, the authors describe their research study and explain the conclusions. The study centered around four questions that addressed (1) the range of literacy activities found in these whole- and half-day programs, the amount of time spent on literacy activities in each, the impact of the two types of programs on the literacy achievement of the children, and how the teacher and children feel about their participation in whole- or half-day programs.

In order to collect the data, the researchers spent twelve days in each classroom, observing and recording data about literacy activities. Furthermore, reading, writing, and attitude measures were collected from each child at the start and at the conclusion of the study. On all literacy achievement measures, children in whole-day kindergartens scored significantly better than did children in the half-day program. It was found that children in the half-day kindergartens spent 42% of their time engaging in literacy activities (a total of 3,795 minutes over the 12 observations), while those in whole-day kindergartens spent 51% of their time (7,745 minutes) participating in literacy activities.

Interestingly, when the researchers calculated the amount of time teachers spent in whole-group, small-group, and one-on-one literacy instruction, whole-group was the overwhelmingly predominant organizational structure in both programs: 83% of the time in whole-day and 85% in half-day programs. Children spent 13% of their time engaged in small group instruction in whole-day classes and 8% of their time in half-day classes. Likewise, only 4% of the time was spent in one-on-one instruction in whole-day kindergartens, as compared to 7% in half-day kindergartens. Through anecdotal observations, the researchers were able to confirm that worthwhile, developmentally appropriate practices were in evidence in both programs.

While discussing the results, Morrow, Strickland, and Woo agreed with recommendations of the National Association For the Education of Young Children (NAEYC): "The important element in early childhood programming is not the time spent in the classroom, but the developmentally appropriate nature of the program. The NAEYC suggests a longer day would be better than one that is shorter only in the instance of a quality program" (p. 49).

As mentioned earlier, the first four chapters of this engaging book review the research study. The middle section provides implications for teaching' frameworks for literacy curriculum, for content area teaching, and for literature-rich environments. Instructions for organizing whole-day and half-day instruction can be found in the last chapter of the book. Appendix A contains a comprehensive interdisciplinary unit on nutrition, which includes objectives and activities for comprehension, writing, play, art, oral language, and more. The final two appendices supply the reader with directions for administering and scoring the assessment measures used in the study as well as a sampling of anecdotal observations that were collected.

Literacy Instruction in Half- and Whole-day Kindergarten: Research to Practice contributes important, easily understood information that can enrich the professional lives of all early childhood educators. It seems worthy to note that the study was based on relatively small numbers: five classes in each of the two programs, and data on student achievement that were collected for 36 children in the whole-day program and 30 children in half-day programs. Despite this limitation, whether interested in research or practice, you're sure to find a wealth of interesting and useful ideas throughout this well-documented book.