Currents in Literacy

Bridging the Humanities and Science Through Literature

By Mary Carson Reinhardt

I try to engage teachers with the habits and peculiarities of the material world, the real subject matter of science. I think it is important ...that teachers who find science an alien world come to feel more comfortable with it. (Eleanor Duckworth, 1990)

During the summer of l993, while teaching a literature course to Cape Cod teachers, I was particularly impressed with a first grade teacher's presentation about science information books. She showed the class a variety of high quality books and suggested several interesting ways to use them in the primary grades. She did it all with the confidence and enthusiasm of an expert, and later, when I complimented her on the talk, she told me that science and science themes were at the center of the curriculum in her classroom. She described how she took advantage of first-graders' natural curiosity about the world to study the Cape environment, and how she taught the children reading, writing, and mathematical skills within the context of science studies. I was impressed with this extraordinary teacher, but at the same time, I was left with questions and concerns about why her vision of education is not found more frequently in the nation's schools.

In an age when science literacy is crucial for everyone, why is science one of the least taught subjects in elementary school? The early years of learning may be the most important time for developing and promoting children's interest in the world, yet science is frequently neglected (Saul, 1991). Officially, science is part of the curriculum in most school districts -- a required subject, complete with curriculum guides and in some instances, materials and kits for hands-on activities -- so why doesn't science play a more central role in the elementary school.

Teachers and Science Phobia

Science specialists maintain that the reason science is not a priority in elementary schools is that so many teachers are reluctant to teach it. They claim that elementary teachers have had very little science study beyond high school, and the lack of a sound educational background in science is the reason for teachers' science insecurity and their tendency to shy away from teaching it (Britton, 1993). Although deficiencies in teacher education programs can contribute to science phobia, poor preparation may not be the only reason elementary teachers are reluctant to teach science.

Another factor for the hesitancy could be the failure to conceive of science as an interdisciplinary study. Instead, science is viewed as a discrete and isolated content area -- just one more subject competing for valuable classroom time during a busy school day. In addition, science is thought to be something that requires a special set of teaching strategies and materials that differ from ordinary classroom procedures, so it is easily overlooked.

Another reason for overlooking science in the elementary school curriculum is that instruction at this level is apt to focus on teaching reading and language arts -- areas in which teachers feel most competent. If science is to play a larger role in the curriculum, it may be important to recognize that elementary school is primarily a literary environment and to consider how science can be accommodated within that environment. For if teachers are most skilled and effective in teaching the language arts, these strengths must be acknowledged, and greater efforts need to be made to help them link their capabilities to science teaching.

Science as a Separate Subject

The Cape Cod teacher described earlier does not view science as just one more subject she has to teach her first graders every day. To her, science is a complete way of learning about the world, a process that involves making observations, raising questions, collecting information, and testing ideas. While engaging in this kind of inquiry, her class quite naturally learns to use the skills they need: reading, writing, mathematics, drawing, and computer technology. At the same time, the interrelationship between science and social understandings begins to evolve. It is not a classroom with separate subject disciplines, each with an allotted period of time, each requiring separate materials and teaching strategies, but one in which children learn through integrated processes.

If teachers were encouraged to develop integrated curricula, it is possible that they would be able to form different visions of how science can proceed in their classrooms. In addition, the dilemma of never having enough time to engage in exploratory science activities could be addressed. Some reports indicate that teachers would teach more inquiry-based science if some of the accompanying classroom management problems could be solved. When questioned, teachers say inflexible time schedules, large classes, inadequate space, and organizational difficulties with science materials are some of the reasons they do not devote more time to doing science in their classrooms (Doris, 1991). It is not surprising then that The National Science Resources Center, which recommends that hands-on, inquiry-based science activities be at the center of elementary school science programs, reports that fewer than two percent of the nation's elementary school children have had an opportunity to participate in an inquiry-oriented science curriculum (Saul, l991).

Closing the Gap Between "The Two Cultures"

In his book, The Two Cultures, British scientist and author C.P. Snow (1964) examines the separation between the scientific community and the rest of educated society and raises concerns about what he perceives to be the increasing lack of understanding between the two domains. In the United States the gap between the "two cultures" of science and the humanities is apparent at all levels of the educational system. Beginning in elementary school and continuing through college, the two divisions of learning continue along separate paths, rarely making reference to one another or attempting to make connections.

For the most part, the elementary school classroom is a humanities culture with a strong emphasis on teaching reading and the language arts, with some mathematics included as well. It is a culture that science specialists sometimes find difficult to enter, so when elementary school teachers appear to resist even the most well-designed science programs, specialists fall back upon the teachers' lack-of-science-background explanation. On the other hand, if science specialists could take advantage of teachers' strengths in language arts and find new ways to integrate science throughout the curriculum, there might be greater success in bringing more science to elementary school classrooms and in developing comfortable, competent teachers of science.

Science writer Vicki Cobb (1991) suggests that using works of nonfiction about science is a powerful way to begin to improve science teaching. She says that, after years of conducting workshops with teachers throughout the country, she finds most teachers are comfortable about exploring ways to use books creatively in the classroom and that they respond especially well to the idea of incorporating nonfiction science books into their classrooms. Today's science books cover a phenomenal range of topics for children of all grade levels. If teachers would use more science books in the classroom, they could advance children's interests in science and open a new range of strategies for science teaching. Even the most science-poor schools could profit from this approach, for as Holzheimer (1991) says, "the science presented in the trade books that teachers and librarians select for children is in all likelihood the only exciting science they experience."

Selecting Science Books of Quality

The very first illustrated book for children was a science book. Written by Johann Comenius, a Moravian clergyman and teacher, Orbis Pictus (Illustrated World) was first translated into English in 1658. Comenius believed that it was important to learn about nature first-hand, so he took children outdoors to observe a variety of natural phenomena- the sky and clouds, the sun and the stars, the patterns of weather and the formations of the earth's surface. Comenius took field notes about what they observed during the excursions and later used them as the basis of the book's text. Wood block illustrations of the observations were added to the text, and Orbis Pictus soon became a popular book for children in both Europe and America, and remained so until well into the nineteenth century. The harmonious integration of text and illustration found in the three-hundred year old Orbis Pictus still meets current standards for a quality science picture book. In honor of Comenius's work, each year The National Council of Teachers of English awards the Orbus Pictus Prize for the best works of non-fiction.

Comenius would probably be pleased with the books which are the descendants of Orbis Pictus. The number and variety of types of books about science have continued to increase annually, and professionals have set high standards for the scientific accuracy of the publications. Every year, the National Science Teachers Association and the Children's Book Council Joint Committee selects a list of the best science books for children in grades K-8 for publication in Science and Education. Among the qualities the Committee insists upon are accurate, up-to-date scientific information, the presentation of different points of view in areas where scientists disagree, and making a clear distinction between fact and theory. The Committee also assesses the age-appropriateness and safety of experiment books and has an expressed "bias against books that are racist, sexist, or extol violence." Other ratings of science books can be found in Science Books & Films, a journal published by the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and in Appraisal: Science Books for Young People, a quarterly review published by Boston University.

Making Connections to Nonfiction Books About Science: Five Strategies

Recent emphasis on literature-based, whole language approaches to the teaching of reading have encouraged teachers to move away from basal readers and to use literature for children more widely in the curriculum. Among the elements that teachers now include in reading programs are reading aloud, independent reading periods, author and genre studies, and incorporating literature across the curriculum. For the most part, literature-based classrooms tend to use fictional literature, so teachers who are unfamiliar with works of non-fiction about science may be surprised to find what an extraordinary genre it is. The following strategies describe the variety of science texts that are available. Effective use of science books in classrooms can have a profound impact on shaping children's attitudes and interests in science.

1. The Language of Science: Stories to Tell

Sometimes nonfiction suffers from an undeserved reputation as a dull and didactic medium, at best, a close relative of the textbook. New readers of contemporary works about science may be surprised to find that this characterization is untrue. Contemporary books about science are well-written -- some even contain poetic language -- and the books contain stories as compelling as any fictional tale. Many science books appeal to children's feelings and sense of aesthetics. In The Sense of Wonder (1956), Rachel Carson emphasizes how important it is to make an emotional connection to the natural world. She says:

If facts are the seeds that later produce knowledge and wisdom, then the emotions and the impressions of the senses are the fertile soil in which the seeds must grow. The years of early childhood are the time to prepare the soil. This is the place to start.

Reading aloud to children may be the best way to "prepare the soil." One of the most appealing texts to start with is Judith and Herbert Kohl's The View From the Oak: The Private Worlds of Other Creatures, by now a classic in the field of nature study. The book follows the great tradition of nature writers like Thoreau and Darwin, and presents to children a model for how to observe nature carefully from the single microcosm of the oak tree. A similar perspective for younger listeners is The Oak Tree by Laura Jane Coats, the story of a day in the life of an oak tree and the variety of animal and human visitors who come to visit. Another inviting tree book is Peter Parnall's Apple Tree. It relates the story of how one tree has been a home for birds and insects, mammals and moss over the passage of many seasons.

Other good read-aloud books are Peter Parnall's Winter Barn and Cynthia Rylant's Night in the Country. Parnall uses sensitive language to describe the various animals that take refuge from the cold New England winter in a barn in Maine. Rylant's book creates a peaceful mood as it reminds children that night time brings special sounds to hear if they listen with care.

Playful use of language can be found in two books about naming in the natural world. A Kettle of Hawks by Jim Aronsky tells about the words used to describe collective groups of animals such as a pride of lions, or a cloud of tadpoles. In Tiger Lilies and other Beastly Plants, Elizabeth Ring describes how plants and flowers were named according to the animals they resemble -- skunk cabbage, elephant ears, and others.

Science books present fine language models to children and at the same time they contain stories exciting enough to rival any fictional adventure. As in fiction, the protagonists of the tales are often animals or humans, but in science stories nature can also take a leading role. Few stories are more dramatic than Patricia Lauber's Summer of Fire: Yellowstone, 1988 and Volcano: The Eruption and Healing of Mount St. Helens. Both books tell dramatic tales of the destructive power of nature, but they also celebrate the return of plants and animal life to these areas of devastation.

Children will also enjoy the drama to be found in Here Come the Killer Bees and in The Dangerous Life of the Sea Horse. There are also a number of books which tell true stories of animal rescues. These include Rescue of the Stranded Whales, and Sterling: Rescue of a Baby Harbor Seal, two stories set in New England. Primary grade students will also be drawn to Clem: The Story of a Raven, Jennifer Owens Dewey's account of her family's adoption and nurturing of a stray baby raven.

2. Personal Stories: Scientists and What They Do

British science educator Robin Millar (1989) claims that there is a "hidden curriculum" of science, an image that children acquire in school which shapes their ideas about the nature of science and the kind of knowledge it provides. He suggests that schools need to help children understand that science is a human activity, that scientific ideas develop and change over time, and that scientific work is affected by historical and social contexts. One way to influence children's perceptions of science is to introduce them to the stories of the women and men of science. Knowing about real scientists and the work they do can challenge existing stereotypes of the "mad scientist" and change the image of science as the domain of white males.

There are many excellent biographical titles from which to choose. They include single-subject biographies such as Florence Sabin by Janet Kronstadt, the story of the first woman to attend Johns Hopkins Medical School and to be elected to the National Academy of Science. Books such as Rooftop Astronomer about the nineteenth century astronomer Maria Mitchell, Florence Sabin: Medical Researcher, and Rachel Carson: Pioneer of Ecology show that women are scientists, too. There are also collective biographies such as The Triumph of Discovery, which tells about four American women who have won Nobel Prizes. Diana Gleasner's Breakthrough: Women in Science relates the stories of contemporary women in engineering, astronomy, physics, and marine biology. Wild Animals, Gentle Women by Margery Facklam describes the lives and research of several women ethnologists, including Jane Goodall and Dian Fossey.

A set of biographies about African-Americans of achievement published by Chelsea House includes the life stories of Benjamin Banneker and George Washington Carver. What Are You Figuring Now?:A Story About Benjamin Banneker recounts the accomplishments of the eighteenth century free black man who was an astronomer and mathematician as well as one of the surveyors who helped lay out plans for the design of Washington, D. C.

Children sometimes assume that the workplace of science is an indoor laboratory. Many books show that scientists actually work in a variety of settings. Naturalist Lynn Rogers, the subject of Lawrence Pringle's Bearman, recalls that when he read about wildlife biologists as a seventh grader, he realized for the first time that there were scientists who went into the woods and worked with animals in their natural habitats, a vocation that was to become his life's work. Rogers has spent over twenty years studying the American black bear. Pringle has also written Batman, the story of naturalist Merlin Tuttle's investigation of bats. Both books contain photographs Rogers and Tuttle have taken in the field.

William Jaspersohn invites readers to join him on A Day in the Life of a Marine Biologist as he follows Arthur Humes through a typical day, doing lab work, writing papers and reports, working with students and other scientists, and collecting samples in muddy tidal zones. Kathryn Lasky's Dinosaur Dig, tells the story of paleontologist Keith Rigby as he leads children and their parents on a dig in Montana. The book shows scientists working together and illustrates how carefully they carry out their research.

Teachers can introduce books about scientists and their work through book talks or by reading aloud. These activities can lead children to further investigation about a scientist and his or her work. For instance, some of the better known scientists may be the subject of several biographies. Children can read two or more biographies and compare the different perspectives taken by authors. In addition, arrangements can be made for children to interview a real scientist and to write biographical sketches. Drawings, skits, and dramatizations of important events/discoveries could also be part of the study of scientists and their work.

3. Author Studies: Have You Read the Latest Laurence Pringle?

If you ask elementary school children to tell you the names of their favorite writers, most would not hesitate to name them -- Tomie dePaola, Roald Dahl, Beverly Cleary, Mildred Taylor, and so on. However, if the same children were asked to name their favorite science writers, they might find it difficult to do so. Works of nonfiction are not often included in elementary school reading programs, particularly books about science. One approach to introducing children to science books is through author studies, a successful strategy teachers sometimes use to explore the works of fiction writers.

There are many ways to conduct author studies, but the most common characteristics of an author study includes reading most, if not all, of the works of a given author, finding common or diverse themes in the works, looking for connections among the books, examining the style of illustration (if the authors also illustrate their works), finding out about the author's life, and comparing the works of the author to other writers who explore similar ideas. Teachers can use these same techniques in conducting author studies about science writers. In the same way that children study all the works of a fiction writer, they can read the books of a science writer and review them. Some of the writers who have produced sufficient bodies of work for author studies include Caroline Arnold, Isaac Asimov, Aliki, Jim Arnosky, Franklyn Branley, Vicki Cobb, Joanna Cole, Margery Facklam, Jean Craighead George, Ron Hirschi, Kathryn Lasky, Patricia Lauber, Dorothy Hinshaw Patent, Lawrence Pringle, Helen Roney Sattler, Millicent Selsam, Seymour Simon, and Mary Stolz.

Children will find that some science writers focus on specific science themes such as astronomy or animals, whereas others write about a broad range of topics. Most science writers specialize in the field of science writing. On the other hand, there are writers such as Jean Craighead George and Kathryn Lasky who write both fiction and non-fiction science books.

In the same way that literature studies help children examine criteria for good works of fiction, explorations of the works of a science writer can help establish standards for judging nonfiction: accuracy and currency of factual information is important as well as clarity of presentation, relevance of the illustrations, useful indexes and references. After completing one science author study, children should go on to do a second one, for the examination of the works of a second writer is an important way to compare the interests and writing styles of two different authors. It also gives readers a basis for seeing how two science writers may approach the same topic from different perspectives. This activity can lead to finding out how some information about science topics has changed over time as new information and theories have emerged.

Doing author studies about science writers is a way to introduce children to the field of science writing and to expose them to a wide range of science topics by taking a broad brush stroke approach. Children will begin to know about the works of science writers and become as enthusiastic about a new book by Laurence Pringle or Patricia Lauber as they are about the latest book by a fiction writer.

4. Independent Reading: Exploring Nature Where You Find It and Creative Browsing

Many elementary school classrooms set aside periods of time for children to pursue independent reading interests. Usually, the purpose of the sessions is to enlarge the scope of children's reading experiences and to help them develop stronger literacy through extensive reading. Independent reading times are good opportunities for teachers and librarians to make science books available for reading and browsing. The extensive range of science books can spark children's curiosity and develop special science interests that might otherwise remain undiscovered.

Among the types of science books children can examine are books that will draw them -- like Comenius's students -- beyond the confines of the classroom. Today there are a great variety of books to do just that. There are excellent field guides which invite children to explore the environment in which they live, be it country, suburbs, or city.

City dwellers will enjoy Ethan Heberman's The City Kid's Field Guide. This book raises awareness of the plants and animals that inhabit most city neighborhoods. Heberman provides a range of different types of illustrations, including diagrams, drawings and photographs of what to look for in the vacant lots, parks, and residences of the city. Children may be surprised to learn that Canada geese have established themselves in many cities throughout North America. In City Geese, Ron Hirschi tells the story of a flock of Canada geese as they pair, nest, and raise their young during a year-long stay in a city.

Children who live in suburban areas may want to examine Richard Headstrom's Suburban Wildlife. For the country environment, Jim Aronsky's Secrets of a Wildlife Watcher gives readers tips about how to identify animal tracks and the best ways to observe wild animals. The book also has a wildlife journal section with blank pages for writing down notes and making sketches.

There are books about nature in the smaller sites of both city and town. Science in a Vacant Lot by Seymour Simon is a unique guide to discovering what can be observed in abandoned or run-down areas. A Field Guide to Your Own Back Yard directs children to see things in familiar places. The idea that experiences in science are not just outdoor activities will be made clear to readers of How to Be An Ocean Scientist in Your Own Home.

Field books are good models for children to use for observing, recording, and drawing what goes on around them. They also serve as examples for children who want to create field guides for any of their own environments in the home, neighborhood, or at school. The entire class might produce field guides for exploring areas around their school, complete with maps and illustrations. Although the book is written for teachers, Ten Minute Field Trips: A Teacher's Guide could also be a source of ideas for children in planning their own excursions.

Other types of science books that would be appropriate for independent reading and browsing are those which answer common questions or speak to particular concerns children might have. How Do Ants Know When You Are Having a Picnic? answers fifty common questions children often ask about insects and animals. Another book using a question and answer format is Do Animals Dream?, a collection made from queries made by young visitors to the Natural History Museum in New York. Cuts, Breaks, Bruises and Burns by Joanna Cole explains the healing capacities of the human body for young readers with questions about scraped knees and elbows.

A classroom collection of field guides and science books to browse through will give variety to the reading materials in independent reading programs. The books may also be a starting place for children to develop and to pursue individual interests in new areas of science.

5. Interdisciplinary Studies: Linking Science and Other Disciplines

If science is taught as a separate subject, it can easily be isolated from other areas of study and relegated to a lower priority status in the hierarchy of the elementary school curriculum. Nevertheless, science is not a single subject: it contains many interrelated disciplines and branches of inquiry. Science doesn't exist separately from society: instead, it is molded by society's goals and values. As Aiken (1991) points out, "ninety-nine percent of man's story is the story of his science." Within the elementary school curriculum, science can be linked to broad, thematic studies as well as to the content of specific subjects. Connecting science to at least one other subject may be the best starting place for teachers. For instance, physical education, art, music, and social studies can easily be related to science.

Physical education and sports enthusiasts might be interested in learning how science brings new perspectives to the understanding of how the human body works during physical activity. In Modern Sports Science, Larry Kettlekamp describes how the basics of anatomy and the physiology of motion apply to modern sports medicine. Science and Sports by Robert Gardner is a well-illustrated examination of basic science principles in motion. Illustrations and photographs show how speed and acceleration are related to sports activities such as throwing, running, batting, and jumping.

There are several books that focus on nature drawing which could add another dimension to classroom art activities. Jim Aronsky has published a full set of books about outdoor drawing. Sketching Outdoors in Summer, Sketching Outdoors in Autumn, Sketching Outdoors in Winter, and Sketching Outdoors in Spring all focus on nature drawing, and, at the same time, they direct readers to be observant of the elements of the changing seasons. Aronsky has also published a fine collection of his nature paintings, In the Forest: A Portfolio of Paintings. Sara Criswell's Nature With Art, another book about nature drawings, gives good examples of art activities that can be done inside the classroom as well as outdoors. After children work on nature drawings, they can go on to study the works of other nature artists such as Audubon, George Catlin, and Alfred Jacob Miller. Older students might examine the works of Ansel Adams as a model for developing their skills as nature photographers.

Music and musical instruments have often been used to demonstrate science principles related to sound. Melvin Berger's The Science of Music does a remarkable job of describing pitch, loudness, and tone as well as explaining how humans interpret sound. Music enthusiasts will find his final sections about the science and technology of making recordings to be particularly compelling.

Teachers who want to connect science and social studies have the widest choices of themes to investigate. For example, a historical study of the exploration of North America might begin with Galileo. Because he was instrumental in overturning the contemporary European view of the universe, proving that the sun rather than the earth was the center of the universe, explorers such as Columbus were confident in believing that the earth was round. Galileo's ideas challenged fundamental religious beliefs, however, and he was forced to retract his theories and was imprisoned for heresy. Galileo and the Universe by Steve Parker tells the story of Galileo's life and gives detailed descriptions of his work. The book provides an excellent background for children to begin to understand the impact of post-Copernican thought on science and to grasp the connection between these scientific findings and the subsequent exploration of the Americas.

An interesting contrast between the development of science in Europe and in other parts of the world is presented in Science in Ancient China by George Beshore. The author tells of the many scientific and technological achievements of China over thousands of years, and goes on to explain the political attitudes which caused scientific interests to decline there. Beshore has written another book to describe science in other parts of the non-Western world in Science in Early Islamic Culture.

Native American achievements in the sciences can be studied in Science of Early American Indians by Beulah and Harold Tannenbaum. Students can also learn more about the contributions of the Native American cultures from Corn is Maize by Aliki. This book tells the story of how Native American farmers learned to grow, store, and use the wild grass plants, and how they shared their knowledge of the corn plant with the early European settlers. In The Amazing Potato, Milton Meltzer describes a similar story. His chronicle of the history of the potato explains how Native American tribes first cultivated the nutritious plant. Later, explorers took the plant back to Europe where it became the staple food for the people of many countries.

Social studies examine contemporary issues as well as historical ones. Many classes learn about environmental problems that face almost all communities. David Macaulay's books How Things Work and Mill are effective books to use to introduce a study of the Industrial Revolution and how science and technology have affected society and the environment. In Rachel Carson: Pioneer of Ecology, students can read about the biologist's fight to educate the public about the dangers of widespread use of pesticides. Laurence Pringle has written several volumes that examine environmental concerns: Living Treasure: Saving Earth's Threatened Biodiversity, Throwing Things Away: From Middens to Resource Recovery, and What Shall We Do With the Land?: Choices for America. Some of the controversial issues about environmental protection can be discussed after reading books such as Endangered Animals and The Animal Rights Controversy.

These titles represent only a few of the many science books for children that can be woven into elementary school studies. As elementary school teachers incorporate science books in language arts programs and in other areas of the curriculum, they will play a significant role in shaping the attitudes of children towards science and in promoting children's interest in the world of science. E. James Rutherford of the American Association for the Advancement of Science says good science education should begin when we can "welcome young minds into the neighborhood of science and make them at home there." Using science books is one way to be certain children will get a good reception when they arrive.

May Carson Reinhardt is an Associate Professor in the School of Education at Lesley University where she teaches courses in children's literature and in the teaching of writing. She is also the director of the Middle School Program.